The Confirmation of the Word
“…And these signs shall accompany them that believe: in my name shall they cast out demons; they shall speak with new tongues; they shall take up serpents, and if they drink any deadly thing, it shall in no wise hurt them; they shall lay hands on the sick and they shall recover. So then the Lord Jesus, after he had spoken unto them, was received up into heaven, and sat down at the right hand of God. And they went forth, and preached everywhere, the Lord working with them, and confirming the word by the signs that followed. Amen.” (Mark 16:17-20)
The above verses have been a textual and doctrinal battleground for centuries. Set in the context of the post resurrection appearances of Jesus (Mark 16:1-13), i.e. “after he was risen” (Mark 16:14), and connected with the assignment of the Great Commission (Mark 16:15-16), it should come as no surprise that the authenticity of this crucial text has often been challenged. In this article, the authenticity of this text, as a part of the sacred canon, is assumed. However, that these verses, and the others which compose the so-called “long ending” of Mark’s gospel account, are genuine, has been unequivocally proved to be the case. [See the following: Varner, W. Terry, “Is Mark 16:9-20 Fraudulent or Genuine?” 2001 West Virginia School Of Preaching Lectureship; Burgon, John W. The Last Twelve Verses of the Gospel According to St. Mark. Reprint: Faith and Facts, n.d.; Warren-Ballard Debate on the Plan of Salvation. Jonesboro: National Christian, Printing 1979.]
The conclusion of the erudite Bible scholar, J.W. McGarvey, is that with which we concur: “Our final conclusion is, that the passage in question is authentic in all its details, and that there is no reason to doubt that it was written by the same hand which indited the proceeding parts of this narrative. The objections which have been raised against it are better calculated to shake our confidence in Biblical Criticism than in the genuineness of this inestimable portion of the word of God” (382).
Jesus was the speaker of the words that compose verses seventeen and eighteen. However, there is no identification of the place where these words were spoken. It may be the case that these words (verses 17-18) were spoken during a post-resurrection appearance in Galilee (cf. Matthew 26:32; 28:7,16-20; Mark 14:28; 16:7, 14-18). They may parallel the Great Commission account of Matthew, but it is not certain that such is the case. In fact, a case can be made that these words of Jesus recorded by Mark (16:17-18) were spoken on a different occasion than that referred to in Matthew 28:16-20 since the Matthew account identifies the place as “the mountain” in Galilee (Matthew 28:16), and Mark’s account refers to when “they sat at meat” (Mark 16:14). In addition to the occasion when the words of verses seventeen and eighteen were spoken, this text also involves the occasion of the ascension (verse 19; cf. Acts 1:8-11) which took place on Mount Olivet (Acts 1:12). The text states: “So then the Lord Jesus, after he had spoken unto them [i.e., after he had spoken to them for forty days following the resurrection, Acts 1:3], was received up into heaven…” (Mark 16:19). Verse nineteen begins a new paragraph in the English Bible. The occasion with which verse nineteen is concerned is to be distinguished from that of verse eighteen. Therefore, the following conclusions may be drawn with regard to the context of Mark 16:17-20:
1. Verses seventeen and eighteen were spoken during a specific post-resurrection appearance.
2. The former part of verse nineteen may be a reference to the entire forty-day period when Jesus had spoken to the apostles (Acts 1:3).
3. The latter part of verse nineteen is a reference to the ascension which occurred on Mount Olivet on the final day of the above-mentioned forty-day period (Acts 1:8-12).
4. The passage concludes with a kind of summation of the Acts of the Apostles which shows how “they went forth, and preached everywhere, the Lord working with them, and confirming the word by the signs that followed” (Mark 16:20).
AFFIRMATION OF THE TEXT
The basic affirmation of this text is: “And these signs shall accompany them that believe…” (Mark 16:17). Literally, “these are the signs which shall follow.” Signs (semeia, nom. acc. pl. of semeion) was used to refer to “the sign or distinguishing mark by which something is known” (Arndt and Gingrich 755). Paul used the term to refer to “the token in every epistle” he wrote to mark its genuineness (2 Thessalonians 3:17) and the “wonders or miracles” (Arndt and Gingrich 755) performed by a true apostle to identify him as such (2 Corinthians 12:12). The word occurs twice in the text before us (vv. 17, 20). It refers here to “. . . a wonder or miracle, an event that is contrary to the usual course of nature . . . miracle of divine origin, performed by God himself. . .” (Arndt and Gingrich 755). Semeion (sign) appears seventy-seven times in the New Testament (Gospels: 48 times; Acts: 13 times; Epistles of Paul: 8 times; Hebrews: 1 time; Revelation: 7 times). A few passages for consideration in which the word is found include John 2:23; 3:2; 20:30-31: Acts 2:22, 43; and Hebrews 2:4. Ancient Papyri have been cited which establish the idea of “proof” as a meaning of semeion (Moulton and Milligan 573). The term involves the “things which God did to accredit the preaching which began with the proclamation of the Lord” (Rengstorf 260. [NOTE: The reader is referred to an in-depth study of semeion in the preceding source, pp. 200-69]. “The basic meaning of semeion is a sign . . . by which one recognizes a particular person or thing, a confirmatory, corroborative, authenticating mark or token” (Hofius 626). These signs are evidences to prove that the gospel of Christ and the claims therein are true. The implication of this text is that Christianity honors the law of rationality which states that one ought to draw only such conclusions as are warranted by the evidence. The Christian faith is rational. It sustains the truth of its claims through the framework of sufficient evidence (Luke 1:1-4; John 20:30-31; Acts 26:25; Romans 1:18-20; 1 Thessalonians 5:21; 1 Peter 3:15, et al).
The Charismatic movement, and other subjective religious movements such as latter-day revelation claimants (Mormons, etc.), often run to Mark 16:17-20 in an attempt to defend their claims of present-day tongue speaking, miraculous healings, etc. However, when the passage is exegeted accurately, and understood, it is not seen as a place of refuge for subjective religious viewpoints and practices which deny the law of rationality. Rather, this text makes a great affirmation of how Christian faith is rational, i.e., it establishes its claims by adequate evidence. Thus, it addresses one of the great needs in religion, viz. the recognition of the essentiality of reasoning correctly in order to arrive at the truth. One must gather the evidence, reason correctly with regard to that evidence, and draw only such conclusions as are warranted by the evidence (cf. John 3:2; 20:30-31). However, as one writer has shown in a recent article, so much in religion today fails at this point:
Lamentably, irrationalism has greatly affected the visible church. The Charismatic movement is just one example of this. The primacy of the intellect and of truth has been replaced with emotionalism, ecstatic utterances, incoherent experiences, and anti-doctrinal statements (e.g. “give me Jesus, not exegesis”). Faith has nothing to do with thought, let alone logic. All too frequently we encounter what Ronald Nash referred to as “the religious revolt against logic.” (Crampton 2-3)
The affirmation of Mark 16:17-20 is that these signs would accompany (parakoloutheo), follow closely, characterize (Bagster 304), “. . . attend those who have come to believe” (Arndt and Gingrich 624), or “follow along the side” (Rienecker 135). The signs would follow “them that believe” (tauta pisteusasin). The signs would follow (accompany, follow closely, follow along the side) them (plural) that believe. Believe is an aorist participle. The “having believed” ones would have the signs follow along the side of them. McGarvey explained it in the following: “The promise is, not that these signs shall follow for any specified time, NOR THAT THEY SHOULD FOLLOW EACH INDIVIDUAL BELIEVER, but merely that THEY SHALL FOLLOW AND FOLLOW “THE BELIEVERS” TAKEN AS A BODY. They did follow the believers during the apostolic age-not every individual believer, but all, or nearly all, the organized bodies of the believers. This was a complete fulfillment of what was promised. He who claims that the promise included more than this, presses the words of the promise beyond what is necessary to a full realization of their meaning…” (375, emp. added).
CLASSIFICATION OF THE SIGNS
The signs (evidence, proof) which would accompany (follow alongside) them that believe are as follows: “. . . in my name shall they cast out demons; they shall speak with new tongues; they shall take up serpents, and if they drink any deadly thing it shall in no wise hurt them; they shall lay hands on the sick and they shall recover” (vv. 17-18). Jesus promised five signs that would accompany the body of believers:
1. The power to expel demons.
2. The ability to speak in new tongues.
3. The ability to pick up serpents, that is, to pick up venomous snakes without being physically harmed.
4. The gift of being able to drink deadly poison without being hurt.
5. The power to lay hands on the sick who will then recover.
Each of these five signs can be classified in one of the areas of the miraculous gifts of the Holy Spirit that Paul set forth (1Corinthians 12:8-11). These signs can be classified as follows:
The power to expel demons is a manifestation of the gift of “working of miracles” (1 Corinthians 12:10).
The ability to speak in new tongues is equivalent to the gift of “diverse kinds of tongues” (1 Corinthians 12:10).
The ability to pick up serpents without being harmed and or drinking deadly poison without being hurt are also manifestations of the gift of “workings of miracles” (1 Corinthians 12:10).
The power to lay hands on the sick so that they then recover is a manifestation of “gifts of healings” (1 Corinthians 12:9).
These miraculous gifts of the Holy Spirit were imparted to believers in the first century church through “the laying on of the apostles’ hands” (Acts 8:14-19). There were signs (semeia) which followed alongside the apostles as evidence that they were genuine, and to prove that what they were preaching was the true revelation of God (2 Corinthians 12:12; Acts 2:43). However, it is also the case that those upon whom the apostles laid their hands, in order to impart the Holy Spirit in a miraculous measure, were also able to perform various signs as evidence to confirm the word they preached (cf. Acts 8:4-7,14-21). Jesus said, “In my name” (en to onomati mou). To do something “in the name of” another can mean “to do a thing, i.e. by one’s command and authority, acting on his behalf, promoting his cause” (Thayer 447). It can mean “in the power of . . . in acknowledgment or confession of . . . in recognition of the authority of (sometimes combined with the thought of relying or resting on) (Vine 100).
“Shall cast out demons” (v. 17) is from daimonia ekbalousin. It means to drive out, or expel, demons or evil spirits (cf. Mark 1:34, 39, 43; 3:15, 23; 6:13; 7:26; 9:18, 28; 16:9).
“They shall speak with new tongues” (v. 17) is translated from glossais (tongues) lalesousin (they shall speak) and kainais (new). Glossa is a language (Arndt and Gingrich 161). It refers to “a tongue, i.e. the language used by a particular people in distinction from that of other nations” (Thayer 118).
The second chapter of Acts provides divine commentary on what is meant by “new tongues.” As Vine has affirmed: “‘The new tongues’, kainos, of Mark 16:17 are the ‘other tongues’, heteros, of Acts 2:4. These languages, however, were ‘new’ and ‘different’, not in the sense that they had never been heard before, or that they were new to the hearers, for it is plain from v.8 that this is not the case; they were new languages to the speaker, different from those in which they were accustomed to speak” (109).
“They shall speak with new tongues” consisted of speaking real, intelligible languages; the miracle being that those who spoke in these “new tongues” had never learned (studied) these languages prior to fluently speaking to them.
“They shall take up serpents, and if they drink any deadly thing it will not hurt them” (v. 18) consists of two statements conjoined by kan (and if). Arousin (take up) can mean to “take up, lift, raise, bear, carry, take away, remove, destroy, kill” (Bagster 9) or “pick up” (Arndt and Gingrich 23). Jesus sent seventy disciples by twos into every city and place where he was about to come (Luke 10:1), and He gave them “authority to tread upon serpents and scorpions . . . so that nothing shall in any wise hurt you” (Luke 10:19). Paul was unharmed by a serpent at Melita (Acts 28:3ff). This incident may or may not be a direct illustration of Mark 16:18. However, it surely belongs to this class of semeia (signs).
On December 6-9, 1976, Alan E. Highers debated Mr. Raymond G. Bishop at Ripley, Mississippi. Mr. Bishop represented the Pentecostal Oneness doctrine advocated by such denominations as the United Pentecostal Church. He contended that all five of the miraculous gifts of Mark 16:17-18 are still in effect. On the third night of the debate brother Highers affirmed: “The Scriptures teach that the Holy Spirit baptism with the signs and miracles ceased by the time the complete will of God was revealed and confirmed or by the end of the apostolic age.” He made the argument that the miracles of the first century cannot be duplicated today, and they ceased when the New Testament was fully delivered and sufficiently confirmed. It was on this third night of the debate that brother Highers delivered one of his most devastating blows against Pentecostal doctrinal error. He presented a western diamond-back rattlesnake, approximately four feet long, in full possession of his venom. As the rattling of this venomous creature was heard throughout all parts of the large auditorium a quiet hush came over the audience. Both Mr. Bishop and his moderator were “visibly shaken” by the snake. Even a child could see that Mr. Bishop dared not “take up serpents” as per his contention on Mark 16:17-18 (Elkins 26-27).
“. . . And if they drink any deadly thing, it shall in no wise hurt them (v. 18). The word translated deadly is thanasimon. It means “fatal” (Bagster 195). Hurt, or harm, is from blaphei (fut. active ind. of blapto) and means to weaken, hurt, harm, or injure (Bagster 70). We have no example of this specific sign in the New Testament. However, tradition reports that the apostle John drank poison without harm (Lenski 769). Some presume to know that what is said here about venomous serpents and poisonous drink is a journey “into the twilight of apocryphal story.” To this presumption Lenski has responded with the following:
. . . Is it really a small thing, something fanciful and apocryphal to escape sudden death by venom or poisonous drink? Is healing the sick like Peter’s mother-in-law from a fever so much greater as a sign, so much less apocryphal than to escape mortal dangers? The exegete should always keep his balance. To prefer the charge of being apocryphal against this section of Mark’s Gospel is ineffective because it could be launched only against the serpents and the drink. The demons, tongues, and sick appear too often and at too great length to be included in such a charge. Must all these verses from nine to twenty come from a late writer because of these two points? The contrary seems reasonable, namely that no man would have added a word about serpents or poisonous drink if he had undertaken to write a conclusion to Mark’s Gospel; only the original writer, Mark himself, dared to add items that are not presented elsewhere. Mark had received them from Peter, and finding fault with them is not good…We have no compilation here, the text, v. 17, 18, stands undisputed, the support for the five items is the same. Therewith let us be content. (770)
“. . . They shall lay hands on the sick and they shall recover” (v. 18). Literally, “upon the infirmed they shall lay hands and well they shall be.” See instances of this in the Acts of the Apostles (3:6-7, 15, et al).
PREPARATION FOR THE SIGNS
“So then the Lord Jesus, after he had spoken unto them, was received up into heaven, and sat down at the right hand of God” (v. 19). Contained in this brief statement is what can be termed a period of preparation for the signs through 1) the instruction of Jesus, 2) the ascension of Jesus, and 3) the exaltation of Jesus. The phrase “after he had spoken unto them” is inclusive of the forty-day period when Jesus, following his death and resurrection, presented various proofs to the apostles to show that He was actually alive and also appeared to them for the purpose of instructing them regarding “the things concerning the kingdom of God” (Acts 1:2-3).
This preparation for the coming confirmatory signs also included the ascension. He “was received up into heaven.” “Received up” is from aneleiphthei which is an aorist participle having reference to the one-time historical fact of the ascension of the Christ (cf. Luke 9:51). The ascension is given no distinct report by Matthew and John. Mark and Luke are the only two who mention it directly in the Gospel accounts. However, it is given additional attention in several great statements in the Acts of the Apostles. Early on, the ascension was preached by the apostles (Acts 2:34). Peter preached “Jesus: whom the heaven must receive” (Acts 3:21). Paul gave a marvelous summation of the “mystery of godliness” which included, “He who was manifested in the flesh, justified in the spirit, seen of angels, preached among the nations, believed on in the world, RECEIVED UP INTO GLORY” (1 Timothy 3:16, emp. added). Peter wrote that “Baptism doth also now save us (the answer of a good conscience toward God) by the resurrection of Jesus Christ: Who is gone into heaven, and is on the right hand of God; angels and authorities and powers being made subject unto him” (1 Peter 3:21-22). The writer of The Epistle to the Hebrews stated: “Having then a great high priest, who has passed through the heavens, Jesus the Son of God . . .” (Hebrews 4:14). The ascension is crucially linked to the fulfillment of the promise that the miraculous signs of confirmation would follow alongside the revealed word as it was preached. Paul showed this link when he wrote, “When he ascended on high, he led captivity captive, and gave gifts unto men (…He that descended is the same also that ascended far above all the heavens, that he might fill all things.) And he gave some to be apostles; and some prophets; and some evangelists; and some pastors and teacher…” (Ephesians 4:8-11). The ascension was “the designed, understood, and fitting sequel to” the resurrection (Jamieson 4).
The preparation for the signs also included the fact that, as Jesus ascended “he sat down at the right hand of God” (v. 19). He was received up into Heaven (ascension of Jesus) AND sat down at the right hand of God (exaltation of Jesus). “The right hand of God” is an anthropomorphistic phrase (i.e., ascribing human characteristics to non-human personages or things). God as a Spirit, has no right or left, literally, nor do the Scriptures ever speak of God’s left. The right hand of God in the Scriptures is a synonym for God’s majestic omnipotence. Lenski observed, “The right hand of God is his omnipotent majesty…To sit at his right is to exercise that majestic omnipotence most fully” (778). Cf. Deuteronomy 33:2; Hebrews 1:3; Mark 12:36; 14:62, et al. When Jesus left the Earth He assumed the place of supreme majesty, power, and dominion. And there is a most comforting doctrine in Scripture, viz. that Jesus is at the right hand of God. In days of turmoil, suffering, perplexity, anxiety, and ultimately, death, we need to see Jesus at the right hand of God! He has won the victory over death and is on the throne (Hebrews 10:12-13)! When Stephen received the hateful gnashing of his enemies’ teeth, and the brutal stoning of his physical body, he, undaunted and unmoved from an unflinching loyalty to Jesus, “looked up steadfastly into heaven, and saw the glory of God, and Jesus standing on the right hand of God” (Acts 7:55). He said, “Behold I see the heavens opened, and the Son of Man standing on the right hand of God” (Acts 7:56). When the stress and strain, doubt and depression, of life threaten to paralyze our energies, oh, how we need, by faith, to see Him there at the right hand of the majesty on high (Heb. 1:3) where He is to plead our case (Romans 8:34-39; Hebrews 7:25, 8:1; 1 John 2:1)!
REVELATION--THE NEED FOR THE SIGNS
“And they went forth and preached everywhere.” They (the apostles) having gone forth preached (3rd person, pl. aorist active indicative of kerusso—to herald) preached everywhere (pantachou—“in all places,” cf. Acts 24:3). Jesus had told them during the forty-day period that they “shall be my witnesses both in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and unto the uttermost part of the earth” (Acts 1:8). They preached by revelation (cf. John 14:26; 16:13; Galatians 1:11-12). Paul wrote, “…You have heard of the dispensation of that grace of God which was given me to you- ward; how that by revelation was made known unto me the mystery, as I wrote before in few words, whereby when you read you can perceive my understanding in the mystery of Christ; which in other generations was not made known unto the sons of men, as it has now been revealed unto his holy apostles and prophets in the Spirit. . . . Unto me who am less than the least of all saints, was this grace given, to preach unto the Gentiles the unsearchable riches of Christ…” (Ephesians 3:2-5,8).
Where there is new revelation, there must be confirmation of that new revelation. Herein lies one of the keys in answering the question of the duration of the confirmatory signs. How long did these signs last? Just as long as the process of new revelation lasted. If there are confirmatory signs today, then new revelation is being given today (Mark 16:20; Hebrews 2:3-4). However, it is false that new revelation is being given today (John 16:13; 1 Corinthians 13:8-10; Jude 3; Revelation 22:18-19). Therefore, it is false that there are confirmatory signs (Mark 16:20; Hebrews 2:3-4) today. Those who argue that the miraculous gifts of the Holy spirit are available today must affirm, by implication, that additional revelation is needed today (and thus, if this view is true, the Bible is insufficient with regard to the information man needs to know in order to be saved and remain saved). However, it is false that the Bible is insufficient with regard to providing man all of the information he needs to know that pertains to salvation (cf. John 16:13; 2 Timothy 3:16-17; 2 Peter 1:3). Therefore, it is false that additional revelation is needed today, and thus, is false that the miraculous gifts of the Holy Spirit are available today. Hendricksen has argued this in the following:
In connection with such special gifts [i.e., the gifts which enabled one to perform the signs of Mark 16:17-18] . . . B.B. Warfield states, “These gifts were part of the credentials of the apostles as the authoritative agents in founding the Church. . . . They necessarily passed away with it.” That with the passing away of the apostolic age these gifts ceased is also the testimony of Chrysostom and Augustine. It was also the view of Jonathan Edwards: “These extra gifts were given in order to the founding and establishing of the church in the world, But since the canon of scripture has been completed, and the church fully founded and established, these extraordinary gifts have ceased.” Among others who expressed similar views are Matthew Henry, George Whitefield, Charles H. Spurgeon, Robert L. Dabney, Abraham Kuyper, Sr., and W.G.T. Shedd. (Hendricksen 690)
CONFIRMATION BY THE SIGNS
The apostles, having gone forth, preaching everywhere “the Lord working with them, and confirming the word by the signs that followed.” This final phrase in the text includes two present participles (i.e. sunergountos—working, and bebaiountos—confirming). Note there are two things attributed to the Lord (working with them and confirming the word). The former does not necessarily include the miraculous. However, the latter must. “Working with them” is from sunergountos. The Lord was working with them through the miraculous, but He also worked with them through the non-miraculous (i.e., His general providential care and through prayer (c.f. Matthew 28:20; Romans 8:28; 2 Corinthians 1:8-11; Philippians 1:12-13, 19, et al.)). He does not work with us today through the miraculous, but surely He will work with, and in, us today, not separate and apart from the word, but in conjunction with the word. Paul wrote, “So then, my beloved, even as ye have always obeyed, not as in my presence only, but now much more in my absence, work out your own salvation with fear and trembling; for it is God who worketh in you both to will and to work, for his good pleasure” (Philippians 2:12-13).
In his comments on these two present participles Lenski has written the following: “Note the durative force of sunergountos, likewise of the next present participle bebaiountos. Confirming the Word was done in addition to working with the disciples” (774). This Greek term (bebaiountos) which is translated with our English word, confirming, means “to prove its truth and divinity” (Thayer 99). Arndt and Gingrich say “the saving message was guaranteed to us” (138). Bagster says that here it means: “to strengthen or establish by arguments or proofs, ratify” (68). It was “the word” which the Lord was confirming. Having gone forth, this is the word they preached (v. 20). And the Lord was confirming this word by “the signs following upon it” (epakoloutheo—to follow after, close upon, Vine 111). See 1 Timothy 5:10, 24; 1 Peter 2:21 for additional usage of this term follow (epakoloutheo). “The signs did not merely follow, they acted as a kind of authenticating signature to the word” (Moulton and Milligan 228). That the term here translated, follow, entails the idea of “authenticating” the word is cited by Arndt and Gingrich in evidence from The Tebtunis Papyri and the Elephantine Papyri (282).
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, we affirm that powerfully, and sufficiently, the Lord confirmed the word. “And a thing once confirmed is forever confirmed. If the court proves a man innocent of a charge, does it have to convene and reaffirm the man’s innocence every year? Certainly not! One merely has to check the written record. Does Moses have to come back and again call forth the plagues on Egypt for us to believe that they were done? Does Jesus have to come back and again perform miracles for us to believe that He is the Son of God? We now have the written record to make believers (John 20:30-31). If one cannot be convinced by the Bible, he would not be convinced if one should rise from the dead (Luke 16:19-31)” (Hobbs 12).
Therefore, we ought to give the more earnest heed to the things that were heard, lest haply we drift away from them. For if the word spoken through angels proved steadfast, and every transgression and disobedience received a just recompense of reward; how shall we escape, if we neglect so great a salvation? Which having at the first been spoken by the Lord, was confirmed unto us by them that heard; God also bearing witness with them, both by signs and wonders, and by manifold powers, and by gifts of the Holy Spirit, according to his own will. (Hebrews 2:1-4)
Works Cited:
Arndt, William F. and Wilbur F. Gingrich. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. 1957. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1973.
Bagster, Samuel. The Analytical Greek Lexicon, London: Bagster and Sons, 1967 reprint.
Crampton, W. Gary, “A Call for Christian Rationality.” The Trinity Review. June 2001.
Elkins, Garland. “A Review of the Highers-Bishop Debate.” The Spiritual Sword. 12. 3 (April 1981).
Hendricksen, William. New Testament Commentary Exposition of the Gospel According to Mark. 1975. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1990.
Hobbs, A. G. “The Purpose of Miracles has Been Fulfilled.” The Spiritual Sword. 5. 3 (April 1974).
Hofius, O. The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology. Vol. 2. Gen. Ed. Colin Brown. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1976.
Jamieson, Robert, A. R. Fausset, and David Brown. A Commentary Critical, Experimental, and Practical on the Old and New Testaments. Vol. 6. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1961.
Lenski, R. C. H. The Interpretation of St. Mark’s Gospel. Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1964.
McGarvey, J.W. The New Testament Commentary. Vol. 1: Matthew and Mark. St. Louis: Christian, 1875.
Moulton James Hope, and George Milligan. The Vocabulary of the Greek New Testament. 1930. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976.
Rienecker, Fritz. A Linguistic Key to the Greek New Testament. Ed. Cleon L. Rogers, Jr. Grand Rapids: Zondervan,1976.
Rengstorf, K.H. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Ed. Gerhard and Friedrich. Vol. 7. 1971. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978.
Thayer, Joseph Henry. Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1973.
Vine, W. E. Vine’s Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words. Vol. 3. 1940. Oliphants, 1952. 4 Vols.
The above article may be found in Things Most Surely Believed, written by Charles C. Pugh III, and available through the Warren Center: https://warrenapologetics.org/bookstore/things-most-surely-believed